UN PERIODO DI CAMBIAMENTI
Ma la prima metà del Cinquecento romano è dominata dalla figura di Alessandro Farnese, poi Paolo III (1534-1549): egli, già da cardinale, immaginava una città prettamente monumentale, in linea con la costruzione dei primi palazzi rinascimentali (Palazzo Venezia e Palazzo della Cancelleria). Edifica , al centro del rione Arenula, Palazzo Farnese che diviene un modello per le successive costruzioni, infatti, fino al tardo Rinascimento, le vecchie case vengono abbattute per far posto a imponenti palazzi (Massimo, Chigi, Spada, Colonna, Borghese e altri). Da pontefice incide profondamente nel tessuto urbano, promuovendo l'apertura di via Trinitatis (Condotti), la riappropriazione ecclesiastica dell'area archeologica e del Campidoglio, la cui trasformazione è affidata a Michelangelo, la sistemazione sul Palatino di una grande villa (orti farnesiani). Già l'entrata di Carlo V (1535) aveva fornito il pretesto per ripensare la funzione dell'intera area archeologica collegando, con viali rettilinei alberati, gli archi trionfali di Costantino, Tito e Settimio Severo, allo scopo di ripristinare l'antico percorso trionfale tra l'Appia Antica e l'area capitolina. Paolo III è anche colui che avvia la Controriforma e indice il Concilio di Trento (1545 - 1563).
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Benvenuto Cellini rinchiuso in Castel Sant'Angelo |
Per quanto riguarda le arti il Rinascimento ha ormai iniziato la transizione verso il Barocco, periodo che viene chiamato dagli storici dell’arte Manierismo (1530 - 1600 circa).
In questa pagina:
Papa Paolo III e la Difesa di Roma
La Dinastia dei Farnese
Primi passi verso la Riforma della Chiesa Cattolica
Papa Giulio III
Il Concilio di Trento
Papa Paolo IV e il Ghetto Ebraico
Iconografia
Papa Paolo III
I cardinali che si riunirono a Roma nell'Ottobre del 1534 per scegliere il successore di
Suleyman's attack on Europe followed also a different path: he
supported Hayruddin Barbarossa (red beard) who established a pirate state
at Algiers and from there raided the coasts of Spain and Italy: in 1534 he
landed at Ostia,
causing the church bells in Rome to ring the alarm. In 1535 Barbarossa
captured Capri, the island at the mouth of the Gulf of Naples, and in 1537
he took part in an unsuccessful attempt to seize Corfù; the
island was pillaged, but the Venetian fortress withstood the Ottoman
assaults.
Pope Paul III managed to arrange an alliance between the
Republic of Venice and Spain to contain the Ottoman threat in the
Mediterranean: the Papal State and the Knights of Malta contributed to the
gathering in Corfù of a Christian fleet of about 300 ships: however the
rivalry between Andrea Doria, the Genoese supreme commander in charge of
the Spanish fleet and the Venetian admirals led in September 1538 to a
disastrous defeat near Preveza.
Bastione del Sangallo: (left) detail of the bastion; (right) detail of Paul III's coat of arms: the key is decorated with lilies, his heraldic symbol
The Ottoman threat and the scars left by the Sack of Rome explain why Pope Paul III devoted so many efforts to strengthening the defences of Rome: he first completed the fortress of Civitavecchia: a very wise decision because in 1544 the new fortifications designed by Michelangelo and Antonio da Sangallo the Younger proved effective in resisting an attack by Barbarossa. He then asked Sangallo to develop a comprehensive study to upgrade the ancient walls of Rome to the needs of modern warfare. In 1536 Sangallo built a large bastion along the walls between Porta S. Sebastiano and Porta S. Paolo and a smaller one in Testaccio. The new fortifications were impressive but their cost was impressive too and the pope had to content himself with strengthening the Vatican walls at Porta S. Spirito and near Palazzo del Belvedere. Pope Paul III built a comfortable papal apartment in Castel Sant'Angelo, in case he and his successors had to seek again safety there.
La Dinastia dei Farnese
Papa Paolo III aveva tre figli legittimi e volle a tutti i costi assicurare un futuro alla sua famiglia: one of his first acts was to appoint cardinal his 15 years old grandson Alessandro who was to become a great protector of the arts in the second half of the century; he managed to assign to his son Pier Luigi several fiefdoms in northern Latium (Nepi, Ronciglione and the Duchy of Castro). In 1545 he assigned to Pier Luigi also the Duchy of Parma, which the Farnese ruled for two centuries.
Pope Paul III arranged in 1538 the marriage of his grandson Ottavio with Margaret, natural daughter of Emperor Charles V; it was Margaret's second marriage. Her first husband Alessandro de' Medici, thought to be the illegitimate son of Pope Clement VII, had been assassinated in 1537.
Palazzo Farnese: (left) detail of the cornice; (right) coat of arms of the Duke of Parma
Pope Paul III is usually associated with his imposing palace in Regola; Margaret, the wife of his grandson Pier Luigi lived in Palazzo Madama and in her fiefdom at Castel Madama, Cardinal Alessandro started to build a large countryside palace at Caprarola and bought the land where he designed one of the first Italian gardens, the Orti Farnesiani.
Palazzo dei Pupazzi is another palace built during the pontificate of Pope Paul III.
Initial Steps towards the Reformation of the Church
Pope Paul III realized that the hopes of eradicating the Reformation by military and diplomatic means as it had occurred in the past with the Cathars were ill based: the conflict between Francis I and Charles V made impossible a joint action to reunite Western Europe Christians: by supporting Charles' action against the Lutheran princes in Germany, the pope endangered the allegiance of France: in 1539 Francis signed the edict which made French the administrative language of the country instead of Latin and in 1543 he made an alliance with the Ottomans for a joint naval assault on Nice, then a possession of the Duke of Savoy, an ally of Charles V.
The pope took steps towards strengthening the moral authority of the church by appointing some new cardinals who advised him about theological matters and suggested the changes needed to meet the expectations of those who had embraced the Reformation: among them Cardinal Reginald Pole who was to play a major role in the temporary return of England to Catholicism; Cardinal Gasparo Contarini who in his Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia suggested changes meant to reduce the criticism about the papal court; Cardinal Giovanni Morone who often met with Lutheran bishops to try to find an agreement on how to start a reconciliation process; Cardinal Marcello Cervini, a close advisor to the pope and his nephew Cardinal Alessandro Farnese.
At the request of Charles V, Pope Paul III agreed to hold an ecumenical council which would put an end to the religious conflict as the Council of Constance had done in 1415. The council eventually was convened in 1545 at Trento, an Italian town in the Alps ruled by a prince-bishop and which because of its position close to Germany was a sort of neutral location.
In 1540 Pope Paul III recognized the Society of Jesus, a new religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola, which was to play a major role in the following years. In 1542 the pope reorganized the Roman Inquisition (Sant'Offizio) to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines.
(left) Portico leading to the Franciscan Monastery of S. Maria d'Aracoeli; (right) Palazzo dei Conservatori: portico
Pope Paul III opened new streets to link Ponte S. Angelo with S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini (Via Paola) and Porto di Ripetta with Trinità dei Monti (Via Trinitatis today known as Via dei Condotti), but the area where he focussed his attention was the Campidoglio: the access to the hill was facilitated by opening a street which from the Papal street reached the foot of the hill: from there a cordonata, a sloping road composed of transversal stripes, allowed the transit of donkeys and horses. The square at the top of the hill as well as the cordonata are thought to have been designed by Michelangelo, who surely designed the base upon which the statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius was relocated. The redesign of the area is generally attributed to the papal desire to receive Emperor Charles V on the hill which was a symbol of the Ancient Roman Empire, but it also served a more private purpose, as the pope had built a summer residence on the northern side of the hill: the building which mainly consisted of a huge tower (Torre di Paolo III) was pulled down to make room for the Monument to Victor Emmanuel II. The access to the tower was embellished by an elegant portico decorated with lilies, the Farnese heraldic symbol (later on Sixtus V, a Franciscan pope, donated the portico to the nearby monastery).
The palaces (Palazzo Senatorio, Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo) designed by Michelangelo were completed in the XVIIth century, but there is a general consensus that this was done in line with the original plan.
Papa Giulio III
Il conclave which followed the death of Pope Paul III was very long: it lasted more than two months from November 1549 to February 1550 thus its final sessions coincided with the Roman carnival: the Romans took enjoyment from going around dressed like cardinals and re-enacting the not so secret dealings which were going on in the conclave. Whether because of the Carnival atmosphere or just because Cardinal Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte had given enough assurances of his future loyalty to both the French and the Spanish cardinals, the choice fell on a man who was far away from that severe moral lifestyle which would have helped in restoring the moral authority of the pope.
Pope Julius III, as Cardinal del Monte chose to be called in honour of Pope Julius II, who had appointed him bishop, had nothing of the energy of that pope, but very much like Pope Leo X he was mainly interested in enjoying life (see a page on the gay days of Pope Julius III). The celebrations for his appointment had more of a carnival festivity than of a religious ceremony.
Pope Julius III managed to keep the Papal State outside the continuing conflict between France and Spain; he rejoiced at the news that Mary, the new Queen of England, who had replaced her younger brother Edward VI in 1553, was seeking to undo many of the Protestant reforms introduced in the country and thought that England was returning to the Catholic faith.
Palazzo Spada: detail of the façade
The gaiety of Pope Julius' days is very well represented by the decoration of Palazzo Spada: located just a few yards away from Palazzo Farnese and built a few years later it has nothing of the neat design of that palace: it marks the move from Renaissance to Mannerism (after It. maniera - style) which in architecture meant an elaborate decoration making use of stucco, a light, easily shaped form of plaster, modelled around a metal structure and mixed with marble powder. Art historians call horror vacui (fear of empty spaces) the filling of the entire surface of a façade with ornamental details, typical of Mannerist architecture.
Pope Julius III used to arrange parties in the suburban villa he built outside Porta del Popolo and which can be regarded as a transition to the new style, although its decoration is not as rich as that of Palazzo Spada.
The Tridentine Council
The works of the Council of Trento were suspended in 1547 due to a pestilence; Pope Paul IV asked the participants to move to Bologna, but the Lutherans were not prepared to relocate to a town which was under papal control so the proceedings went ahead without them. Pope Julius III in an attempt to overcome their resistance transferred the council back to Trento and a certain number of German bishops took the opportunity presented to return to the council; but Henry II, the French king who replaced in 1547 his father Francis I, ordered the French clergy not to participate and soon after he made an alliance with Maurice of Saxony, a leader of the German protestants and declared war on Charles V: although the war was inconclusive it blocked the proceedings of the council: a French attempt to conquer Florence by supporting the Republic of Siena ended in defeat: Cosimo I de' Medici helped by Charles V conquered the rival town and became the first Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Pope Julius III tried to implement a reformation of the Catholic Church based on the preliminary council recommendations but he died before issuing the papal bull he was working on.
The cardinals in the following conclave had no doubts about who was the best man to carry forward the task of reuniting the Christians or at least of summing up the council proceedings. During the council Cardinal Marcello Cervini had shown both his religious zeal and his preparedness to listen to other views and he was acclaimed pope. Pope Marcellus II (as he chose to retain his name as a sign of consistency with his previous action) abolished all the pomp associated with the coronation ceremonies and told his relatives in Montepulciano not to attend them. Unfortunately he soon fell ill and after just 22 days of pontificate he died: he was celebrated by Pierluigi da Palestrina in his Missa Papae Marcelli.
1552 - Scalinata di Palazzo Senatorio
Pope Julius III continued many of the initiatives started by his predecessor: he built a portico in Palazzo dei Conservatori which mirrored that leading to the Farnese Tower; two gigantic statues were placed in the niches of the new steps of Palazzo Senatorio; the walls between Porta Salaria and Porta Pinciana were strengthened; the pope built Tempio di S. Andrea near his villa to celebrate the day he was freed by Emperor Charles V after the Sack of Rome.
Pope Julius III often availed himself of Jacopo Barozzi, known as il Vignola from the small town near Modena where he was born: he designed for the pope Villa Giulia, the portico and Tempio di S. Andrea: in the following years and until his death in 1573 he was regarded as one of the leading architects.
Papa Paolo IV
The cardinals who met at the conclave which followed the death of Pope Marcellus II defied the veto of Emperor Charles V ed elessero il 79enne Cardinale di Napoli Gian Pietro Carafa, a great opponent of the Spanish influence in Italy. He had been appointed cardinal by Pope Paul III and for this reason he chose to be called Pope Paul IV. He soon clashed with the heirs of Emperor Charles V who abdicated in 1556 leaving the empire (Austrian possessions) to his brother Ferdinand and Spain, Milan, Naples, the Low Countries and the colonies to his son Philip.
The pope did not recognize the act of abdication and soon after, at the suggestion of his nephew Carlo Carafa, he made an alliance with King Henry II of France and declared war on Spain.
Don Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, governor of the Spanish possessions in Italy invaded the Papal State and easily defeated the papal troops at Paliano. Another Sack of Rome was looming on the horizon, but the Duke chose to offer the pope generous peace terms and did not march towards Rome.
In 1557 the Spanish won a decisive battle over the French at St. Quentin: in the following peace of Cateau-Cambresis King Henry II renounced all his claims to Italy. Spain directly ruled Sicily, Sardinia, Naples and Milan: the Spanish hegemony over Italy lasted for 150 years.
Pope Paul IV did not reconvene the council and he managed relations badly with Queen Elizabeth I who replaced her half-sister Mary in 1558: the rigidity of the pope led the young queen towards the re-establishment of a separate national church.
Site of the Old Ghetto: the modern Synagogue
Pope Paul IV when he was a cardinal was in charge of the Roman Inquisition: one of his first acts as a pope was to increase the powers of this institution and the penalties associated with heresy: even some cardinals were charged with heresy and Cardinal Morone was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo as a hidden Lutheran. The pope imposed on the Romans a very austere lifestyle, but allowed his nephew Carlo Carafa to profit from his position to enrich himself and, according to widespread rumours, to behave badly from a moral viewpoint.
He forced the Jews of the Papal State to live in two ghettos in Rome and Ancona: he built walls around an area of Rione Sant'Angelo which was subject to floods: the Jews were not allowed to live elsewhere and during the day had to go about wearing a distinctive sign: the gates of the ghetto were pulled down in 1848; the whole area was entirely rebuilt at a raised level in 1888 and walls along the river protected it from floods (for a view of the ghetto before 1888 click here).
Pope Paul IV died in August 1559: the Romans reacted to the news by setting fire to the Inquisition palace and by destroying all the coats of arms of the pope: his statue in Campidoglio was beheaded and the head was rolled down the cordonata.
Iconografia
Papa Paolo III e i suoi nipoti di Tiziano (1546) - Museo di Capodimonte - Napoli.
L'Imperatore Carlo V di Tiziano (1548) - Alte Pinakothek - Munchen.
Papa Paolo III di Tiziano (1548) - The Hermitage - St. Petersburg.
Monumento a Paolo III by Guglielmo Della Porta (1515-77) - S. Pietro - Rome.
Andrea Doria come Nettuno di Agnolo Bronzino (1503-72) - Pinacoteca di Brera - Milano
Cardinal Reginald Pole di Sebastiano Del Piombo (1485-1547) - The Hermitage - St. Petersburg.
Sessioni del Concilio Tridentino - pittori vari - Trento.
